Childhood obesity

From WikiMD
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This page contains changes which are not marked for translation.


W8MD and WikiMD founder

Editor-In-Chief: Prab R. Tumpati M.D.. Founder, WikiMD and W8MD Weight Loss, Sleep and MedSpa Centers. Dr. Tumpati is board certified physician practicing sleep medicine, obesity medicine, aesthetic medicine and internal medicine. Dr. Tumpati’s passion is prevention rather than cure. As a physician with fellowship training in Obesity Medicine, Dr. Tumpati has a unique approach to wellness, weight loss, aesthetics with a focus on prevention rather than cure. Dr. Tumpati believes in educating the public on the true science and art of medicine, nutrition, wellness and beauty.

WikiMD Resources for Childhood obesity

Articles

Most recent articles on Childhood obesity

Most cited articles on Childhood obesity

Review articles on Childhood obesity

Articles on Childhood obesity in N Eng J Med, Lancet, BMJ

Media

Powerpoint slides on Childhood obesity

Images of Childhood obesity

Photos of Childhood obesity

Podcasts & MP3s on Childhood obesity

Videos on Childhood obesity

Evidence Based Medicine

Cochrane Collaboration on Childhood obesity

Bandolier on Childhood obesity

TRIP on Childhood obesity

Clinical Trials

Ongoing Trials on Childhood obesity at Clinical Trials.gov

Trial results on Childhood obesity

Clinical Trials on Childhood obesity at Google

Guidelines / Policies / Govt

US National Guidelines Clearinghouse on Childhood obesity

NICE Guidance on Childhood obesity

NHS PRODIGY Guidance

FDA on Childhood obesity

CDC on Childhood obesity

Books

Books on Childhood obesity

News

Childhood obesity in the news

Be alerted to news on Childhood obesity

News trends on Childhood obesity

Commentary

Blogs on Childhood obesity

Definitions

Definitions of Childhood obesity

Patient Resources / Community

Patient resources on Childhood obesity

Discussion groups on Childhood obesity

Patient Handouts on Childhood obesity

Directions to Hospitals Treating Childhood obesity

Risk calculators and risk factors for Childhood obesity

Healthcare Provider Resources

Symptoms of Childhood obesity

Causes & Risk Factors for Childhood obesity

Diagnostic studies for Childhood obesity

Treatment of Childhood obesity

Continuing Medical Education (CME)

CME Programs on Childhood obesity

International

Childhood obesity en Espanol

Childhood obesity en Francais

Business

Childhood obesity in the Marketplace

Patents on Childhood obesity

Experimental / Informatics

List of terms related to Childhood obesity

Childhood obesity is a condition where excess body fat negatively affects a child's health or wellbeing. As methods to determine body fat directly are difficult, the diagnosis of obesity is often based on BMI. Due to the rising prevalence of obesity in children and its many adverse health effects it is being recognized as a serious public health concern.[1] The term overweight rather than obese is often used in children as it is less stigmatizing.[2]

Classification

Main article: Classification of childhood obesity
BMI for age percentiles for boys 2 to 20 years of age.
BMI for age percentiles for girls 2 to 20 years of age.

Body mass index (BMI) is acceptable for determining obesity for children two years of age and older.[3] The normal range for BMI in children vary with age and sex. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention defines obesity as a BMI greater than or equal to the 95th percentile. It has published tables for determining this in children.[4]
The US Preventive Service Task Force reported that not all children with a high BMI need to lose weight though. High BMI can identify a possible weight problem, but doesn’t differentiate between fat or lean tissue.[5]

Effects on health

The first problems to occur in obese children are usually emotional or psychological.[6] Childhood obesity however can also lead to life-threatening conditions including diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, sleep problems, cancer, and other disorders.[7][8] Some of the other disorders would include liver disease, early puberty or menarche, eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia, skin infections, and asthma and other respiratory problems.[9] Asthma severity is not affected by obesity however.[10] Overweight children are more likely to grow up to be overweight adults.[8] Obesity during adolescence has been found to increase mortality rates during adulthood.[11]

Obese children often suffer from teasing by their peers.[12][13] Some are harassed or discriminated against by their own family.[13] Stereotypes abound and may lead to low self-esteem and depression.[14]

A 2008 study has found that children who are obese have carotid arteries which have prematurely aged by as much as thirty years as well as abnormal levels of cholesterol.[15]

System Condition System Condition
Endocrine Cardiovascular
Gastroentestinal Respiratory
Musculoskeletal Neurological
Psychosocial Skin

[18]

Long term health effects

Children who are obese are likely to be obese as adults. Thus, they are more at risk for adult health problems such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, several types of cancer, and osteoarthritis. One study showed that children who became obese as early as age 2 were more likely to be obese as adults.[19] According to an article in the New York Times all of these health effects are contributing to a shorter lifespan of five years for these obese children. It is the first time in two centuries that the current generation of children in America may have a shorter life span than their parents.[20]

Causes

Childhood obesity can be brought on by a range of factors which often act in combination.[21][22][23][24][25] “Obesogenic environment” is the medical term set aside for this mixture of elements.[26] The greatest risk factor for child obesity is the obesity of both parents. This may be reflected by the family's environment and genetics.[27] Other reasons may also be due to psychological factors and the child's body type.

A 2010 review stated that childhood obesity likely is the result of the interaction of natural selection favouring those with more parsimonious energy metabolism and today's consumerist society with easy access to energy dense cheap foods and less energy requirements in daily life.[28]

Genetics

Childhood obesity is often the result of an interplay between many genetic and environmental factors. Polymorphisms in various genes controlling appetite and metabolism predispose individuals to obesity when sufficient calories are present. As such obesity is a major feature of a number of rare genetic conditions that often present in childhood.

In children with early-onset severe obesity (defined by an onset before ten years of age and body mass index over three standard deviations above normal), 7% harbor a single locus mutation.[29] One study found that 80% of the offspring of two obese parents were obese in contrast to less than 10% of the offspring of two parents who were of normal weight.[1][30] The percentage of obesity that can be attributed to genetics varies from 6% to 85% depending on the population examined.[31]

Socioeconomic status

It is much more common for young people who come from a racial or ethnic minority, or for those who have a lower socioeconomic status, to be overweight and to engage in less healthy behaviors and sedentary activities, like playing video games and computer games.[32]

Prevention

Schools play a large role in preventing childhood obesity by providing a safe and supporting enviornment with policies and practices that support healthy behaviors.[33] At home, parents can help prevent their children from becoming overweight by changing the way the family eats and exercises together. The best way children learn is by example, so parents need to lead by example by living a healthy lifestyle.[34]

Dietary

The effects of eating habits on childhood obesity are difficult to determine. A three-year randomized controlled study of 1,704 3rd grade children which provided two healthy meals a day in combination with an exercise program and dietary counsellings failed to show a significant reduction in percentage body fat when compared to a control group. This was partly due to the fact that even though the children believed they were eating less their actual calorie consumption did not decrease with the intervention. At the same time observed energy expenditure remained similar between the groups. This occurred even though dietary fat intake decreased from 34% to 27%.[35] A second study of 5,106 children showed similar results. Even though the children ate an improved diet there was no effect found on BMI.[36] Why these studies did not bring about the desired effect of curbing childhood obesity has been attributed to the interventions not being sufficient enough. Changes were made primarily in the school environment while it is felt that they must occur in the home, the community, and the school simultaneously to have a significant effect.[30]

Calorie-rich drinks and foods are readily available to children. Consumption of sugar-laden soft drinks may contribute to childhood obesity. In a study of 548 children over a 19 month period the likelihood of obesity increased 1.6 times for every additional soft drink consumed per day.[37]

Calorie-dense, prepared snacks are available in many locations frequented by children. As childhood obesity has become more prevalent, snack vending machines in school settings have been reduced by law in a small number of localities. Some research suggests that the increase in availability of junk foods in schools can account for about one-fifth of the increase in average BMI among adolescents over the last decade.[38] Eating at fast food restaurants is very common among young people with 75% of 7th to 12th grade students consuming fast food in a given week.[39] The fast food industry is also at fault for the rise in childhood obesity. This industry spends about $4.2 billion on advertisements aimed at young children. McDonald's alone has thirteen websites that are viewed by 365,000 children and 294,000 teenagers each month. In addition, fast food restaurants give out toys in children's meals, which helps to entice children to buy the fast food. Forty percent of children ask their parents to take them to fast food restaurants on a daily basis. To make matters worse, out of 3000 combinations created from popular items on children's menus at fast food restaurants, only 13 meet the recommended nutritional guidelines for young children.[40] Some literature has found a relationship between fast food consumption and obesity.[41] Including a study which found that fast food restaurants near schools increases the risk of obesity among the student population.[42]

Whole milk consumption verses 2% milk consumption in children of one to two years of age had no effect on weight, height, or body fat percentage. Therefore, whole milk continues to be recommended for this age group. However the trend of substituting sweetened drink for milk has been found to lead to excess weight gain.[43]

Legal

Some jurisdictions attempt to use laws and regulations to steer kids and parents towards making healthier food choices. Two examples are calorie count laws and banning soft drinks from sale at vending machines in schools.[44]

Physical activity

Physical inactivity of children has also shown to be a serious cause, and children who fail to engage in regular physical activity are at greater risk of obesity. Researchers studied the physical activity of 133 children over a three-week period using an accelerometer to measure each child's level of physical activity. They discovered the obese children were 35% less active on school days and 65% less active on weekends compared to non-obese children.

Physical inactivity as a child could result in physical inactivity as an adult. In a fitness survey of 6,000 adults, researchers discovered that 25% of those who were considered active at ages 14 to 19 were also active adults, compared to 2% of those who were inactive at ages 14 to 19, who were now said to be active adults.[45] Staying physically inactive leaves unused energy in the body, most of which is stored as fat. Researchers studied 16 men over a 14 day period and fed them 50% more of their energy required every day through fats and carbohydrates. They discovered that carbohydrate overfeeding produced 75–85% excess energy being stored as body fat and fat overfeeding produced 90–95% storage of excess energy as body fat.[46]

Many children fail to exercise because they are spending time doing immobile activities such as computer usage, playing video games or watching television. Technology has a large factor on the children's activeness. Researchers provided a technology questionnaire to 4,561 children, ages 14, 16, and 18. They discovered children were 21.5% more likely to be overweight when watching 4+ hours of TV per day, 4.5% more likely to be overweight when using a computer one or more hours per day, and unaffected by potential weight gain from playing video games.[46] A randomized trial showed that reducing TV viewing and computer use can decrease age-adjusted BMI; reduced calorie intake was thought to be the greatest contributor to the BMI decrease.[47]

Technological activities are not the only household influences of childhood obesity. Low-income households can affect a child's tendency to gain weight. Over a three-week period researchers studied the relationship of socioeconomic status (SES) to body composition in 194 children, ages 11–12. They measured weight, waist girth, stretch stature, skinfolds, physical activity, TV viewing, and SES; researchers discovered clear SES inclines to upper class children compared to the lower class children.[48]

Childhood inactivity is linked to obesity in the United States with more children being overweight at younger ages. In a 2009 preschool study 89% of a preschoolers' day was found to be sedentary while the same study also found that even when outside, 56 percent of activities were still sedentary. One factor believed to contribute to the lack of activity found was little teacher motivation,[49] but when toys, such as balls were made available, the children were more likely to play.[49]

Home environment

Children's food choices are also influenced by family meals. Researchers provided a household eating questionnaire to 18,177 children, ranging in ages 11–21, and discovered that four out of five parents let their children make their own food decisions. They also discovered that compared to adolescents who ate three or fewer meals per week, those who ate four to five family meals per week were 19% less likely to report poor consumption of vegetables, 22% less likely to report poor consumption of fruits, and 19% less likely to report poor consumption of dairy foods. Adolescents who ate six to seven family meals per week, compared to those who ate three or fewer family meals per week, were 38% less likely to report poor consumption of vegetables, 31% less likely to report poor consumption of fruits, and 27% less likely to report poor consumption of dairy foods.[50] The results of a survey in the UK published in 2010 imply that children raised by their grandparents are more likely to be obese as adults than those raised by their parents.[51] An American study released in 2011 found the more mothers work the more children are more likely to be overweight or obese.[52]

Developmental factors

Various developmental factors may affect rates of obesity. Breast-feeding for example may protect against obesity in later life with the duration of breast-feeding inversely associated with the risk of being overweight later on.[53] A child's body growth pattern may influence the tendency to gain weight. Researchers measured the standard deviation (SD [weight and length]) scores in a cohort study of 848 babies. They found that infants who had an SD score above 0.67 had catch up growth (they were less likely to be overweight) compared to infants who had less than a 0.67 SD score (they were more likely to gain weight).[54]

A child's weight may be influenced when he/she is only an infant. Researchers also did a cohort study on 19,397 babies, from their birth until age seven and discovered that fat babies at four months were 1.38 times more likely to be overweight at seven years old compared to normal weight babies. Fat babies at the age of one were 1.17 times more likely to be overweight at age seven compared to normal weight babies.[55]

Medical illness

Cushing's syndrome (a condition in which the body contains excess amounts of cortisol) may also influence childhood obesity. Researchers analyzed two isoforms (proteins that have the same purpose as other proteins, but are programmed by different genes) in the cells of 16 adults undergoing abdominal surgery. They discovered that one type of isoform created oxo-reductase activity (the alteration of cortisone to cortisol) and this activity increased 127.5 pmol mg sup when the other type of isoform was treated with cortisol and insulin. The activity of the cortisol and insulin can possibly activate Cushing's syndrome.[56]

Hypothyroidism is a hormonal cause of obesity, but it does not significantly affect obese people who have it more than obese people who do not have it. In a comparison of 108 obese patients with hypothyroidism to 131 obese patients without hypothyroidism, researchers discovered that those with hypothyroidism had only 0.077 points more on the caloric intake scale than did those without hypothyroidism.[57]

Psychological factors

Main article: Psychological aspects of childhood obesity

Researchers surveyed 1,520 children, ages 9–10, with a four-year follow up and discovered a positive correlation between obesity and low self-esteem in the four-year follow up. They also discovered that decreased self-esteem led to 19% of obese children feeling sad, 48% of them feeling bored, and 21% of them feeling nervous. In comparison, 8% of normal weight children felt sad, 42% of them felt bored, and 12% of them felt nervous.[58] Stress can influence a child's eating habits. Researchers tested the stress inventory of 28 college females and discovered that those who were binge eating had a mean of 29.65 points on the perceived stress scale, compared to the control group who had a mean of 15.19 points.[59] This evidence may demonstrate a link between eating and stress.

Feelings of depression can cause a child to overeat. Researchers provided an in-home interview to 9,374 adolescents, in grades seven through 12 and discovered that there was not a direct correlation with children eating in response to depression. Of all the obese adolescents, 8.2% had said to be depressed, compared to 8.9% of the non-obese adolescents who said they were depressed.[60] Antidepressants, however, seem to have very little influence on childhood obesity. Researchers provided a depression questionnaire to 487 overweight/obese subjects and found that 7% of those with low depression symptoms were using antidepressants and had an average BMI score of 44.3, 27% of those with moderate depression symptoms were using antidepressants and had an average BMI score of 44.7, and 31% of those with major depression symptoms were using antidepressants and had an average BMI score of 44.2.[61]

Management

The escalation of obese children is due to the upsurge of technology, increase in snacks and portion size of meals, and the decrease in the physical activity of children. If children were more mobile and less sedentary, the rate of obesity would decrease. Children have to put down the electronic devices and spend more time outside playing or exploring other options of physical acitvity. A study found kids that use electronic devices 3 or more hours a day had between a 17- 44% increased risk of being overweight, or a 10- 61% increased risk of obese (Cespedes 2011).

  1. REDIRECT Template:Full citation needed
  • From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

Parents have to recognize the signs and encourage their children to be more physically active. There are many programs designed to encourage activities such as Letsmove.gov, a program launched by the first lady, Michelle Obama to help combat problems with this epidemic of obesity.

Lifestyle

Exclusive breast-feeding is recommended in all newborn infants for its nutritional and other beneficial effects.[53] Parents changing the diet and lifestyle of their offspring by offering appropriate food portions, increasing physical activity, and keeping sedentary behaviors at a minimum may also decrease the obesity levels in children.[62]

Medications

There are no medications currently approved for the treatment of obesity in children. Orlistat and sibutramine may however be helpful in managing moderate obesity in adolescence.[53] Sibutramine is approved for adolescents older than 16. It works by altering the brain's chemistry and decreasing appetite. Orlistat is approved for adolescents older than 12. It works by preventing the absorption of fat in the intestines.[63]

Epidemiology

Main article: Epidemiology of childhood obesity
Prevalence of overweight among children 2 to 19 years in the USA.

Rates of childhood obesity have increased greatly between 1980 and 2010.[62] Currently 10% of children worldwide are either overweight or obese.[2]

Canada

The rate of overweight and obesity among Canadian children has increased dramatically in recent years. In boys, the rate increased from 11% in 1980s to 30% in 1990s.[64]

Brazil

The rate of overweight and obesity in Brazilian children increased from 4% in the 1980s to 14% in the 1990s.[64] In 2007 the prevalence of children overweight and childhood obesity was 11.1% and 2.7% in girls, 8.2% and 1.5% in boys, respectively.[65]

United States

The rate of obesity among children and adolescents in the United States has nearly tripled between the early 1980s and 2000. It has however not changed significantly between 2000 and 2006 with the most recent statistics showing a level just over 17 percent.[66] In 2008, the rate of overweight and obese children in the United States was 32%, and had stopped climbing.[67] In 2011, a national cohort study of infants and toddlers found that nearly one-third of US children were overweight or obese at 9 months and 2 years old. Infant weight status was strongly associated with preschool weight status.

Australia

Since the onset of the 21st Century, Australia has found that childhood obesity has followed trend with the United States. Information garnered has concluded that the increase has occurred in the lower socioeconomic areas where poor nutritional education has been blamed.

Research

A study of 1800 children aged 2 to 12 in Colac, Australia tested a program of restricted diet (no carbonated drinks or sweets) and increased exercise. Interim results included a 68% increase in after school activity programs, 21% reduction in television viewing, and an average of 1 kg weight reduction compared to a control group.[68]

A survey carried out by the American Obesity Association into parental attitudes towards their children's weight showed the majority of parents think that recess should not be reduced or replaced. Almost 30% said that they were concerned with their child's weight. 35% of parents thought that their child's school was not teaching them enough about childhood obesity, and over 5% thought that childhood obesity was the greatest risk to their child's long term health.[69]

A Northwestern University study indicates that inadequate sleep has a negative impact on a child's performance in school, their emotional and social welfare, and increases their risk of being overweight. This study was the first nationally represented, longitudinal investigation of the correlation between sleep, Body Mass Index (BMI) and overweight status in children between the ages of 3 and 18. The study found that an extra hour of sleep lowered the children's risk of being overweight from 36% to 30%, while it lessened older children's risk from 34% to 30%.[70]

Obese children and adolescents are more likely to become obese as adults. For example, one study found that approximately 80% of children who were overweight at aged 10–15 years were obese adults at age 25 years. Another study found that 25% of obese adults were overweight as children. The latter study also found that if overweight begins before 8 years of age, obesity in adulthood is likely to be more severe.[71]

A study has also found that tackling childhood obesity will not necessarily lead to eating disorders later in life.[72]

A review of secular trends in the number of overweight or obese children have come to the conclusion that prevalence had increased during the past two decades in the most industrialised countries, apart from Russia and Poland, and in several low-income countries, especially in urban areas. Prevalence doubled or tripled between the early 1970s and late 1990s in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Japan, the UK, and the USA. By 2010, more than 40% of children in the North American and eastern Mediterranean WHO regions, 38% in Europe, 27% in the western Pacific, and 22% in southeast Asia were predicted to be overweight or obese. However, that 2006 review pre-dates recent data, which, although still too soon to be certain, suggest that the increase in childhood obesity in the USA, the UK, and Sweden might be abating.3–5 [73]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Bessesen DH (June 2008). "Update on obesity". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 93 (6): 2027–34. doi:10.1210/jc.2008-0520. PMID 18539769.
  3. ↑ Deurenberg P, Weststrate JA, Seidell JC (March 1991). "Body mass index as a measure of body fatness: age- and sex-specific prediction formulas". Br. J. Nutr. 65 (2): 105–14. doi:10.1079/BJN19910073. PMID 2043597.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ↑ "Healthy Weight: Assessing Your Weight: BMI: About BMI for Children and Teens". CDC.
  5. ↑ "Experts Available to Discuss Childhood Obesity, Role of BMI". Business Wire ExpertSource Group. 2005. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
  6. ↑
  7. ↑ Childhood obesity - CNN
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Childhood Obesity
  9. ↑ Childhood obesity: Complications - MayoClinic.com
  10. ↑ http://journals1.scholarsportal.info.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/tmp/16687618609454762612.pdf
  11. ↑ Must A, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, Bajema CJ, Dietz WH (November 1992). "Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents. A follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935". The New England Journal of Medicine. 327 (19): 1350–5. doi:10.1056/NEJM199211053271904. PMID 1406836.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ Janssen I, Craig WM, Boyce WF, Pickett W (2004). "Associations between overweight and obesity with bullying behaviors in school-aged children". Pediatrics. 113 (5): 1187–94. doi:10.1542/peds.113.5.1187. PMID 15121928.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Obesity.Org
  14. ↑ SRTS Guide: Health Risks
  15. ↑ "Obese kids have arteries of 45-year-olds: study". CTV News. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
  16. ↑ Polotsky AJ, Hailpern SM, Skurnick JH, Lo JC, Sternfeld B, Santoro N (April 2010). "Association of adolescent obesity and lifetime nulliparity—the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN)". Fertil. Steril. 93 (6): 2004–11. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.059. PMC 2891509. PMID 19185860.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ Cornette R (2008). "The emotional impact of obesity on children". Worldviews Evid Based Nurs. 5 (3): 136–41. doi:10.1111/j.1741-6787.2008.00127.x. PMID 19076912.
  18. ↑ Uptodate.com|http://www.uptodate.com/online/content/topic.do?topicKey=pedigast/13911#25
  19. ↑ http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/facts.htm, Adolescent and school health, CDC
  20. ↑ http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/17/health/17obese.html?_r=0
  21. ↑ Ebbeling CB, Pawlak DB, Ludwig DS (2002). "Childhood obesity: public-health crisis, common sense cure". Lancet. 360 (9331): 473–82. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09678-2. PMID 12241736.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ Dietz WH (1998). "Health consequences of obesity in youth: childhood predictors of adult disease". Pediatrics. 101 (3 Pt 2): 518–25. PMID 12224658.
  23. ↑ Speiser PW, Rudolf MC, Anhalt H; et al. (2005). "Childhood obesity". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90 (3): 1871–87. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-1389. PMID 15598688. Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ↑ Kimm SY, Obarzanek E (2002). "Childhood obesity: a new pandemic of the new millennium". Pediatrics. 110 (5): 1003–7. doi:10.1542/peds.110.5.1003. PMID 12415042.
  25. ↑ Miller J, Rosenbloom A, Silverstein J (2004). "Childhood obesity". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (9): 4211–8. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0284. PMID 15356008.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ↑ McBride, D. (2010). Childhood obesity. Practice Nurse, 39(11), 40-45
  27. ↑ Cole T.J. (2006). Early Causes of Childhood Obesity and Implications for Prevention. Retrieved December 1, 2011, from http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/14548/1/14548.pdf
  28. ↑ Han J, Lawlor D, Kimm (2010). "Childhood obesity". Lancet. 375 (9727): 1737–1748. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60171-7. PMC 3073855. PMID 20451244.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ↑ Farooqi S, O'Rahilly S (December 2006). "Genetics of obesity in humans". Endocr. Rev. 27 (7): 710–18. doi:10.1210/er.2006-0040. PMID 17122358.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1
  31. ↑ Yang W, Kelly T, He J (2007). "Genetic epidemiology of obesity". Epidemiol Rev. 29: 49–61. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxm004. PMID 17566051.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ↑ Delva, Ph.D., Jorge, Patrick M. O'Malley, Ph.D., and Lloyd D. Johnston Ph.D. "Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Status Differences in Overweight and Health-Related Behaviors among American Students: National Trends 1986-2003." Journal of Adolescent Health 39 (2006):536-45. Web. 25 Sept. 2013
  33. ↑ "Adolescent and School Health".
  34. ↑ Which BMI standards to use in practice? (2012). Public Health Nutrition, 15(8), 1541-2. doi:10.1017/s136898001200167x
  35. ↑ Caballero B, Clay T, Davis SM; et al. (November 2003). "Pathways: a school-based, randomized controlled trial for the prevention of obesity in American Indian schoolchildren". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 78 (5): 1030–8. PMID 14594792. Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ↑ Nader PR, Stone EJ, Lytle LA; et al. (July 1999). "Three-year maintenance of improved diet and physical activity: the CATCH cohort. Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 153 (7): 695–704. doi:10.1001/archpedi.153.7.695. PMID 10401802. Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ↑ James J, Kerr D (2005). "Prevention of childhood obesity by reducing soft drinks". Int J Obes (Lond). 29 (Suppl 2): S54–7. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803062. PMID 16385753.
  38. ↑ Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Reading, Writing, and Raisinets: Are School Finances Contributing to Children's Obesity?, October 2004
  39. ↑ French SA, Story M, Neumark-Sztainer D, Fulkerson JA, Hannan P (2001). "Fast food restaurant use among adolescents: associations with nutrient intake, food choices and behavioral and psychosocial variables". Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25 (12): 1823–33. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801820. PMID 11781764.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ↑ Tracy, Ben. "Fast Food Restaurants Not Fighting Child Obesity - CBS Evening News - CBS News." Breaking News Headlines: Business, Entertainment & World News - CBS News. CBS Evening News, 8 Nov. 2010. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/11/08/eveningnews/main7035550.shtml>.
  41. ↑ Thompson OM, Ballew C, Resnicow K; et al. (2004). "Food purchased away from home as a predictor of change in BMI z-score among girls". Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 28 (2): 282–9. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802538. PMID 14647177. Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. ↑ Davis B, Carpenter C (December 2008). "Proximity of Fast-Food Restaurants to Schools and Adolescent Obesity". Am J Public Health. 99 (3): 505–10. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.137638. PMC 2661452. PMID 19106421.
  43. ↑ Allen RE, Myers AL (November 2006). "Nutrition in toddlers". American Family Physician. 74 (9): 1527–32. PMID 17111891.
  44. ↑ Reinehr T, Wabitsch M (2011). "Childhood Obesity". Current Opinion in Lipidology. 22 (1): 21–25. doi:10.1097/MOL.0b013e32833f9c37. PMID 20871401.
  45. ↑ Ortega FB, Ruiz JR, Castillo MJ, Sjöström M (2007). "Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence: a powerful marker of health". Int J Obes (Lond). 23 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803774. PMID 18043605.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Horton TJ, Drougas H, Brachey A, Reed GW, Peters JC, Hill JO (1995). "Fat and carbohydrate overfeeding in humans: different effects on energy storage". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 62 (1): 19–29. PMID 7598063.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ↑ Epstein LH, Roemmich JN, Robinson JL; et al. (March 2008). "A randomized trial of the effects of reducing television viewing and computer use on body mass index in young children". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 162 (3): 239–45. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2007.45. PMC 2291289. PMID 18316661. Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ↑ Lluch A, Herbeth B, Méjean L, Siest G (2000). "Dietary intakes, eating style and overweight in the Stanislas Family Study". Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 24 (11): 1493–9. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801425. PMID 11126347.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "The Inactivity Of Preschoolers Amid Rising Childhood Obesity" (Summarized from Child Development, Vol. 80, Issue 1, Social and Environmental Factors Associated with Preschoolers' Non-sedentary Physical Activity by Brown, WH (University of South Carolina), Pfeiffer, KA (Michigan State University), McIver, KL (East Carolina University), Dowda, M, Addy, CL, and Pate, RR (University of South Carolina).). Medical News Today. February 2009. Retrieved September 25, 2010.
  50. ↑ Videon TM, Manning CK (2003). "Influences on adolescent eating patterns: the importance of family meals". J Adolesc Health. 32 (5): 365–73. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(02)00711-5. PMID 12729986.
  51. ↑ "Grandparents 'boost obesity risk'". BBC News. 2010-02-15. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
  52. ↑ "Childhood obesity risk tied to amount of work mother does lineup announced". Sydney Morning Herald. 8 February 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2011.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 "North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition" (PDF).
  54. ↑ Ong KK, Ahmed ML, Emmett PM; et al. (2000). "Association between postnatal catch-up growth and obesity in childhood: prospective cohort study". BMJ. 320 (7240): 967–71. doi:10.1136/bmj.320.7240.967. PMC 27335. PMID 10753147. Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. ↑ Stettler N, Zemel BS, Kumanyika S, Stallings VA (2002). "Infant weight gain and childhood overweight status in a multicenter, cohort study". Pediatrics. 109 (2): 194–9. doi:10.1542/peds.109.2.194. PMID 11826195.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ↑ Bujalska IJ, Kumar S, Stewart PM (1997). "Does central obesity reflect "Cushing's disease of the omentum"?". Lancet. 349 (9060): 1210–3. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)11222-8. PMID 9130942.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  57. ↑ Tagliaferri M, Berselli ME, Calò G; et al. (2001). "Subclinical hypothyroidism in obese patients: relation to resting energy expenditure, serum leptin, body composition, and lipid profile". Obes. Res. 9 (3): 196–201. doi:10.1038/oby.2001.21. PMID 11323445. Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ↑ Strauss RS (2000). "Childhood obesity and self-esteem". Pediatrics. 105 (1): e15. doi:10.1542/peds.105.1.e15. PMID 10617752.
  59. ↑ Ogg EC, Millar HR, Pusztai EE, Thom AS (1997). "General practice consultation patterns preceding diagnosis of eating disorders". Int J Eat Disord. 22 (1): 89–93. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199707)22:1<89::AID-EAT12>3.0.CO;2-D. PMID 9140741.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ↑ Goodman E, Whitaker RC (2002). "A prospective study of the role of depression in the development and persistence of adolescent obesity". Pediatrics. 110 (3): 497–504. doi:10.1542/peds.110.3.497. PMID 12205250.
  61. ↑ Dixon JB, Dixon ME, O'Brien PE (2003). "Depression in association with severe obesity: changes with weight loss". Arch. Intern. Med. 163 (17): 2058–65. doi:10.1001/archinte.163.17.2058. PMID 14504119.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Han JC, Lawlor DA, Kimm SY (May 2010). "Childhood obesity". Lancet. 375 (9727): 1737–48. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60171-7. PMC 3073855. PMID 20451244.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  63. ↑ Childhood obesity: Treatments and drugs - MayoClinic.com
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Flynn MA, McNeil DA, Maloff B; et al. (February 2006). "Reducing obesity and related chronic disease risk in children and youth: a synthesis of evidence with 'best practice' recommendations". Obes Rev. 7 (Suppl 1): 7–66. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2006.00242.x. PMID 16371076. Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  65. ↑ Guedes DP, Rocha GD, Silva AJ, Carvalhal IM, Coelho EM,"Effects of social and environmental determinants on overweight and obesity among Brazilian schoolchildren from a developing region.", Rev Panam Salud Publica., October 30, 2011
  66. ↑ Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Flegal KM (May 2008). "High body mass index for age among US children and adolescents, 2003–2006". JAMA. 299 (20): 2401–5. doi:10.1001/jama.299.20.2401. PMID 18505949.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. ↑ U.S. Childhood Obesity Rates Level Off
  68. ↑ "Obesity study bears fruit", Jamie Oliver, 24 August 2006.
  69. ↑ Survey on parents' perceptions of their children's weight, American Obesity Association. August, 2000. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  70. ↑ Snell E, Adam EK, Duncan GJ (January/February). "Sleep and the Body Mass Index and Overweight Status of Children and Adolescents". Child Development. Society for Research in Child Development's. 78 (1): 309–23. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00999.x. PMID 17328707. Check date values in: |date=, |year= / |date= mismatch (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  71. ↑ Childhood Overweight and Obesity, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. March, 2011. Retrieved 4/18/2011.
  72. ↑ "How To Deal With Overweight/Obese Children". Sydney Morning Herald. 19 October 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
  73. ↑ Han, Joan (6 May 2010). "Child Obesity". 375: 1737. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Wikipedia

External links

Template:Nutritional pathology

W8MD weight loss logo

Ad. Tired of being overweight?. W8MD's insurance Weight loss program can HELP*

Weight loss tips | Lose weight King of Prussia, PA | W8MD's medical weight loss | Lose weight New York City | Lose weight Philadelphia | Lose weight NYC | Weight loss Brooklyn NY | Advertise
Other languages:
English

Quick links: Medicine Portal | Encyclopedia‏‎‏‎ | Gray's Anatomy‏‎ | Topics‏‎ |‏‎ Diseases‏‎ | Drugs | Wellness | Obesity‏‎ | Metabolic syndrome | Weight loss*
Disclaimer: The entire contents of WIKIMD.ORG are for informational purposes only and do not render medical advice or professional services. If you have a medical emergency, you should CALL 911 immediately! Given the nature of the wiki, the information provided may not be accurate, misleading and or incorrect. Use the information on this wiki at your own risk! See full Disclaimer.
Link to this page: <a href="http://www.wikimd.org/wiki/Childhood_obesity">Childhood obesity</a>

  • Individual results may vary for weight loss from our sponsors.
Retrieved from "http://www.wikimd.org/wiki/index.php?title=Childhood_obesity&oldid=1276135"